Choline
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Evidence Summary
Choline is an essential nutrient critical for the maintenance of liver, brain, and muscle homeostasis. Research primarily focuses on its metabolic pathways, its role in neurodevelopment, and its potential utility in managing neurodegenerative and psychiatric conditions.
Evidence by Condition
Meta-analysis indicates differences in choline-containing compounds and myo-inostiol levels between treatment-resistant and responsive patients.
Nutritional interventions are studied for their potential to prevent nonprogressive congenital and perinatal brain injuries.
Clinical trials are exploring the use of citicoline in conjunction with brain-computer interface training for attention.
Effective Doses
The IOM/NAM recommends an Adequate Intake (AI) of 550 mg/day for males aged 19-50.
Key Findings
- Greater choline-containing compounds and myo-inositol are observed in specific schizophrenia subgroups (PMID: 37925074).
- Choline deficiency is linked to negative health consequences in the liver, brain, and muscles (PMID: 33668062).
- Plasma concentrations of choline and betaine can be used to accurately assess dietary intake levels in healthy adults (PMID: 41687879).
Limitations
Much of the current research focuses on the pharmacokinetics and metabolic assessment of choline rather than large-scale clinical efficacy for specific diseases. There is a lack of standardized therapeutic dosing protocols in the available literature.
Safety & Interactions
Regulatory bodies like EFSA have established scientific opinions regarding health claims for choline; however, specific contraindications were not detailed in the provided studies.
AI-generated summary from 28 peer-reviewed studies. Not medical advice. Always consult a healthcare provider.
Dietary Reference Intakes
Source: IOM/NAM Dietary Reference Intakes · Dietary Reference Intakes: Choline
Claims vs. Evidence
| Claim Type | % of Products | Evidence Required | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| All Other | 97% | Tier D (Unclassified) | ✅ Supported |
| Structure/Function | 90% | Tier C (DSHEA Structure/Function (no pre-approval)) | ✅ Supported |
| Nutrient | 42% | Tier D (Unknown) | ✅ Supported |
| No Claim | 1% | Tier D (No claim on label) | ✅ Supported |
🏛️ NIH ODS Factsheet
Research by Topic
⚠️ FDA Safety Data
Research Evidence (28)
**Smucny et al., 2024** | Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging | Meta Analysis Smucny Jason, Carter Cameron S, Maddock Richard J. Greater Choline-Containing Compounds and Myo-inositol in Treatment-Resistant Versus Responsive Schizophrenia: A 1H...
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition is a key mechanism in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases and in counteracting toxic exposures to pesticides and nerve agents. However, accurately ranking the potency of covalently binding AChE inhibitor...
BACKGROUND: Functional dyspepsia (FD) is a disorder that presents with chronic dyspepsia, which is not only very common but also highly affects quality of life of the patients. In Japan, FD became a disease name for national insurance in 2013, and ha...
**Authority**: European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) **Claim Type**: art13.1 **Substance**: choline **DOI**: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2056 **URL**: https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2056
**Curioni et al., 2022** | Nutr Rev | Meta Analysis Curioni Cintia C, Mocellin Michel C, ... André Charles. Effectiveness of nutritional interventions to prevent nonprogressive congenital and perinatal brain injuries: a systematic review and meta-ana...
BACKGROUND: Choline deficiency has numerous negative health consequences; although the preponderance of the US population consumes less than the recommended Adequate Intake (AI), clinical assessment of choline status is difficult. Further, several pa...
BACKGROUND: Choline is an essential nutrient, and insufficient intake negatively affects the liver, brain, and muscles. In the United States, habitual choline intake remains below the adequate intake (AI). To date, no circulating metabolites have bee...
**Sylvia et al., 2013** | Psychother Psychosom | Systematic Review Sylvia Louisa G, Peters Amy T, ... Nierenberg Andrew A. Nutrient-based therapies for bipolar disorder: a systematic review. Psychother Psychosom. 2013;82(1):10-9. doi:10.1159/00034130...
**Eussen et al., 2007** | Br J Nutr | Rct Eussen Simone J P M, Ueland Per M, ... de Groot Lisette C P G M. The association of betaine, homocysteine and related metabolites with cognitive function in Dutch elderly people. Br J Nutr. 2007-Nov;98(5):960...
BACKGROUND: Adequate intake of choline is essential for growth and homeostasis, but its supply does often not meet requirements. Choline deficiency decreases phosphatidylcholine (PC) and betaine synthesis, resulting in organ pathology, especially of ...
BACKGROUND: Supply of choline is not guaranteed in current preterm infant nutrition. Choline serves in parenchyma formation by membrane phosphatidylcholine (PC), plasma transport of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) via PC, and methylation processe...
BACKGROUND: Choline deficiency leads to pathologies particularly of the liver, brain and lung. Adequate supply is important for preterm infants and patients with cystic fibrosis. We analysed the assimilation of four different enterally administered d...
**NCT ID**: NCT07333339 **Phase**: **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 174 **Completion**: 2025-11-10
**Atkinson et al., 2009** | Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis | Rct Atkinson W, Slow S, ... George P M. Dietary and supplementary betaine: effects on betaine and homocysteine concentrations in males. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2009-Dec;19(11):767-73. doi:10....
**Source**: IOM 1998 Dietary Reference Intakes for Choline **Unit**: mg/day | Population | AI | |---|---| | Male 19-50 | 550 mg/day |
**NCT ID**: NCT04764162 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 14 **Completion**: 2023-11-21
**NCT ID**: NCT04967157 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 148 **Completion**: 2022-08-31
**NCT ID**: NCT06001632 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 50 **Completion**: 2025-10-01
As a crucial part of the symbiotic system, the gut microbiome is metabolically connected to many diseases and conditions, including cardiovascular diseases (CVD). Trimethylamine (TMA) is produced by gut bacteria from dietary choline, betaine, or L-ca...
**NCT ID**: NCT02735473 **Phase**: PHASE2 **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 46 **Completion**: 2021-09-10
**NCT ID**: NCT03046693 **Phase**: PHASE4 **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 38 **Completion**: 2017-05
**NCT ID**: NCT03142763 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 30 **Completion**: 2018-12-31
**NCT ID**: NCT03444662 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 70 **Completion**: 2019-09-03
**NCT ID**: NCT01371357 **Phase**: PHASE3 **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 40 **Completion**: 2011-12
**NCT ID**: NCT02266641 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 118 **Completion**: 2017-12
**NCT ID**: NCT03312140 **Phase**: NA **Status**: COMPLETED **Enrollment**: 10 **Completion**: 2017-02-08
**Source:** [Office of Dietary Supplements, NIH](https://ods.od.nih.gov:443/factsheets/Choline-HealthProfessional/) **Reading Level:** Health Professional This fact sheet from the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements provides evidence-based information ...
**Source**: FDA Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN) Adverse Event Reporting System **Total Events**: 7 **Serious Events**: 1 **Date Range**: 20121205 to 20250925 - **GASTROINTESTINAL PAIN**: 1
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is choline and why is it important?
Choline is an essential nutrient that is critical for maintaining the health of your liver, brain, and muscles. It plays a vital role in supporting the proper functioning and homeostasis of these key body systems.
Can choline help with schizophrenia?
There is moderate evidence suggesting that levels of choline-containing compounds differ between patients who are responsive to treatment and those with treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Further research is needed to fully understand its role in managing the condition.
Does choline improve focus and attention?
There is currently weak evidence regarding the use of choline for cognitive function and attention. Some clinical trials are investigating whether citicoline can be used alongside brain-computer interface training to assist with focus.
Is choline effective for preventing brain injuries in infants?
There is currently insufficient evidence to confirm if nutritional interventions with choline can prevent nonprogressive brain injuries in preterm or developing infants. Research is still ongoing in this area of neurodevelopment.
How much choline should I take daily?
The recommended adequate intake for men aged 19 to 50 is 550 mg per day. Maintaining this level is important for preventing negative health consequences in the liver, brain, and muscles.
Are there any side effects or drug interactions with choline?
There are no documented drug interactions or specific contraindications found in the current research. However, you should always consult with a healthcare professional before adding new supplements to your routine.
What happens if I don't get enough choline?
A deficiency in choline is linked to negative health consequences for your brain, liver, and muscles. Ensuring adequate intake is necessary to maintain essential bodily functions.
Answers generated from research evidence. Not medical advice.